What is Condom?

What Is It?

Condoms are considered a barrier method of contraception. There are male condoms and female condoms. A male condom is a thin latex (a type of rubber) sheath that is worn on the penis. A female condom is a polyurethane sheath with a flexible ring at either end. One end is closed and is inserted into the vagina, the other end is open and the ring sits outside the opening of the vagina. The male condom is far more widely used and is sometimes called a "rubber" or "prophylactic."

How Does It Work?

The condom works by keeping semen (the fluid that contains sperm) from entering the vagina. The male condom is placed on a guy's penis when it becomes erect. It is unrolled all the way to the base of the penis while holding the tip of the condom to leave some extra rubber. This creates a space for semen after ejaculation and makes it less likely that the condom will break.

After the guy ejaculates, he should hold the condom at the base of the penis as he pulls out of the vagina. He must do this while the penis is still erect to prevent the condom from slipping off when he gets soft. If this happens, sperm could enter the vagina.

The female condom is inserted into the vagina using the closed-end ring. The other ring creates the open end of the condom. The sheath then lines the walls of the vagina creating a barrier between the sperm and the cervix. The male and female condoms should not be used at the same time because they can get stuck together and cause one or the other to slip during intercourse, making them ineffective. The female condom can be inserted up to 8 hours prior to intercourse. It should be removed immediately after sex.

A used condom should be thrown in the garbage, not down the toilet. Once a condom is used, it cannot be reused. A new condom should be used each time you have sex and it must be used from start to finish every time you have sex to prevent pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Never use oil-based lubricants such as mineral oil, petroleum jelly, or baby oil with condoms because these substances can break down the rubber.

And if a condom ever seems dry, sticky, or stiff when it comes out of the package, or if it is past its expiration date, throw it away and use a new one. It's a good idea to have several condoms on hand in case there is a problem with one. It's best to store unused condoms in a cool, dry place.

How Well Does It Work?

Over the course of 1 year, 15 out of 100 typical couples who rely on male condoms alone to prevent pregnancy will have an accidental pregnancy. The use of the female condom is a little less reliable and 21 out of 100 couples will have an unintended pregnancy.

Of course, these are average figures and the chance of getting pregnant depends on whether you use this method correctly and every time you have sex. In fact studies show that, although it's possible for condoms to break or slip during intercourse, the most common reason that condoms "fail" is that the couple fails to use one at all.

Experts used to think that using spermicide with a condom would decrease the pregnancy rate as well as help fight against STDs. However, more recent information indicates that this is not necessarily true and spermicide does not help make condoms more effective.

In general, how well each type of birth control method works depends on a lot of things. One factor is whether the method chosen is convenient — and whether the person remembers to use it correctly all the time.

Abstinence (not having sex) is the only method that always prevents pregnancy and STDs.

Protection Against STDs

Most male condoms are made of latex. Those made of lambskin may offer less protection against some STDs, including HIV, so use of latex condoms is recommended. For people who may have an allergic skin reaction to latex, both male and female condoms made of polyurethane are available.

When properly used, latex and polyurethane condoms are effective against most STDs. Condoms do not protect against infections spread from sores on the skin not covered by a condom (such as the base of the penis or scrotum). For those having sex, condoms must always be used to protect against STDs even when using another method of birth control.

Possible Side Effects

Most men and women have no problems using condoms. Side effects that can occasionally occur include:

• allergy to latex condoms
• irritation of the penis or the vagina from spermicides or lubricants that some condoms are treated with

Who Uses It?

Couples who are responsible enough to stop and put a condom on each time before sex and people who want protection against STDs use condoms. Because condoms are the only method of birth control currently available for men, they allow the guy to take responsibility for birth control and STD protection. Condoms are also a good choice for people who do not have a lot of money to spend on birth control.

How Do You Get It?

Condoms are available without a prescription and are sold in drugstores, supermarkets, and even vending machines (in some stores, they're in the "Family Planning" aisle). Condoms come in different sizes, textures, and colors.

How Much Does It Cost?

Condoms are the least expensive and most available method of birth control — other than abstinence, of course. Male condoms cost about $0.50 to $1 each and are less expensive when they are bought in boxes that contain several condoms.

In addition, many health centers and family planning clinics (such as Planned Parenthood) and some schools distribute them free of charge. Female condoms are a little more expensive and cost about $2 to $3 per condom.

Forms of democracy

Main article: Democracy (varieties)

[edit] Representative

Representative democracy involves the selection of government officials by the people being represented. The most common mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a plurality of the votes. Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or constituency), or represent the entire electorate proportionally proportional systems, with some using a combination of the two. Some representative democracies also incorporate elements of direct democracy, such as referendums. A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in their interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgment as how best to do so.

[edit] Parliamentary democracy

Parliamentary democracy where government is appointed by parliamentary representatives as opposed to a 'presidential rule' by decree dictatorship. Under a parliamentary democracy government is exercised by delegation to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people. ^{[7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14]}

[edit] Liberal democracy

A Liberal democracy is a representative democracy in which the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law, and usually moderated by a constitution that emphasizes the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and which places constraints on the leaders and on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities (see civil liberties).

[edit] Direct Democracy

Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to relying on intermediaries or representatives. The supporters of direct democracy argue that democracy is more than merely a procedural issue (i.e., voting).^[15] Most direct democracies to date have been weak forms, relatively small communities, usually city-states. However, some see the extensive use of referendums, as in California, as akin to direct democracy in a very large polity with more than 20 million in California, 1898-1998 (2000) (ISBN 0-8047-3821-1). In Switzerland, five million voters decide on national referendums and initiatives two to four times a year; direct democratic instruments are also well established at the cantonal and communal level. Vermont towns have been known for their yearly town meetings, held every March to decide on local issues.

[edit] Socialist Democracy

Socialist thought has several different views on democracy. Social democracy, democratic socialism, and the dictatorship of the proletariat (usually exercised through Soviet democracy) are some examples. Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of participatory democracy and workplace democracy combined with a representative democracy.

Within Marxist orthodoxy there is a hostility to what is commonly called "liberal democracy", which they simply refer to as parliamentary democracy because of its often centralized nature. Because of their desire to eliminate the political elitism they see in capitalism, Marxists, Leninists and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy implemented though a system of communes (which are sometimes called soviets). This system ultimately manifests itself as council democracy and begins with workplace democracy. (See Democracy in Marxism)

[edit] Anarchist Democracy

The only form of democracy considered acceptable to many anarchists is direct democracy. Some anarchists oppose direct democracy while others favour it. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognized that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous.^[16] However, anarcho-communist Murray Bookchin criticized individualist anarchists for opposing democracy,^[17] and says "majority rule" is consistent with anarchism.^[18] Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt in favour of a non-majoritarian form of consensus democracy, similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy.^[19]

[edit] Iroquois Democracy

Iroquois society had a form of participatory democracy and representative democracy.^[20] Iroquois government and law was discussed by Benjamin Franklin^[21] and Thomas Jefferson.^[22] Because of this many scholars regard it to have influenced the formation of American representative democracy.^[22] However scholars who reject multiculturalism disagree that the influence existed or was of any great importance.^[23]

[edit] Sortition

Sometimes called "democracy without elections", sortition is the process of choosing decision makers via a random process. The intention is that those chosen will be representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large, and be more fair and impartial than an elected official. The technique was in widespread use in Athenian Democracy and is still used in modern jury selection. It is not universally agreed that sortition should be considered "democracy" due to the lack of actual elections^{[citation needed]}.

[edit] Consensus democracy

Consensus democracy requires varying degrees of consensus rather than just a mere democratic majority. It typically attempts to protect minority rights from domination by majority rule.

[edit] Interactive Democracy

Interactive Democracy seeks to utilise information technology to involve voters in law making. It provides a system for proposing new laws, prioritising proposals, clarifying them through parliament and validating them through referendum.

Democracy (disambiguation)

For other uses, see Democracy (disambiguation) and Democratic Party.

Voting is an important part of the democratic process.

In political theory, democracy describes a small number of related forms of government and also a political philosophy. A common feature of democracy as currently understood and practiced is competitive elections. Competitive elections are usually seen to require freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and some degree of rule of law. Civilian control of the military is often seen as necessary to prevent military dictatorship and interference with political affairs. In some countries, democracy is based on the philosophical principle of equal rights.

"Majority rule" is a major principle of democracy, though many democratic systems do not adhere to this strictly—representative democracy is more common than direct democracy, and minority rights are often protected from what is sometimes called "the tyranny of the majority". Popular sovereignty is common but not a universal motivating philosophy for establishing a democracy.

No universally accepted definition of 'democracy' exists, especially with regard to the elements in a society which are required for it.^[1] Many people use the term "democracy" as shorthand for liberal democracy, which may include additional elements such as political pluralism, equality before the law, the right to petition elected officials for redress of grievances, due process, civil liberties, human rights, and elements of civil society outside the government. In the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a supporting attribute, but in other countries, such as the United Kingdom, the dominant philosophy is parliamentary sovereignty (though in practice judicial independence is generally maintained). In other cases, "democracy" is used to mean direct democracy.

Though the term "democracy" is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles are also applicable to private organizations and other groups. Democracy has its origins in Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, Europe, and North and South America ^[2] but modern conceptions are significantly different. Democracy has been called the "last form of government" and has spread considerably across the globe.^[3] Suffrage has been expanded in many jurisdictions over time from relatively narrow groups (such as wealthy men of a particular ethnic group), but still remains a controversial issue with regard disputed territories, areas with significant immigration, and countries that exclude certain demographic groups.

The Ear

The ear is the sense organ that detects sounds. The vertebrate ear shows a common biology from fish to humans, with variations in structure according to order and species. It not only acts as a receiver for sound, but plays a major role in the sense of balance and body position. The ear is part of the auditory system.

The word "ear" may be used correctly to describe the entire organ or just the visible portion. In most animals, the visible ear is a flap of tissue that is also called the pinna. The pinna may be all that shows of the ear, but it serves only the first of many steps in hearing and plays no role in the sense of balance. In people, the pinna is often called the auricle. Vertebrates have a pair of ears, placed symmetrically on opposite sides of the head. This arrangement aids in the ability to localize sound sources.

Heart Attack Symptoms and Warning Signs

If you think you're having a heart attack, call 9-1-1 or your emergency medical system immediately.

Some heart attacks are sudden and intense — the "movie heart attack," where no one doubts what's happening. But most heart attacks start slowly, with mild pain or discomfort. Often people affected aren't sure what's wrong and wait too long before getting help. Here are signs that can mean a heart attack is happening:

• Chest discomfort. Most heart attacks involve discomfort in the center of the chest that lasts more than a few minutes, or that goes away and comes back. It can feel like uncomfortable pressure, squeezing, fullness or pain.
• Discomfort in other areas of the upper body. Symptoms can include pain or discomfort in one or both arms, the back, neck, jaw or stomach.
• Shortness of breath. May occur with or without chest discomfort.
• Other signs: These may include breaking out in a cold sweat, nausea or lightheadedness

As with men, women's most common heart attack symptom is chest pain or discomfort. But women are somewhat more likely than men to experience some of the other common symptoms, particularly shortness of breath, nausea/vomiting, and back or jaw pain.

If you or someone you're with has chest discomfort, especially with one or more of the other signs, don't wait longer than a few minutes (no more than 5) before calling for help. Call 9-1-1... Get to a hospital right away.

Calling 9-1-1 is almost always the fastest way to get lifesaving treatment. Emergency medical services staff can begin treatment when they arrive — up to an hour sooner than if someone gets to the hospital by car. The staff are also trained to revive someone whose heart has stopped. You'll also get treated faster in the hospital if you come by ambulance.

If you can't access the emergency medical services (EMS), have someone drive you to the hospital right away. If you're the one having symptoms, don't drive yourself, unless you have absolutely no other option.

How do I know if a heart attack has occurred?

A doctor who's studied the results of several tests must diagnose a heart attack. The doctor will

• review the patient's complete medical history.
• give a physical examination.
• use an electrocardiogram (e-lek"tro-KAR'de-o-gram) (ECG or EKG) to discover any abnormalities caused by damage to the heart. An ECG is a medical device that makes a graphical record of the heart's electrical activity.
• sometimes use a blood test to detect abnormal levels of certain enzymes in the bloodstream.

Blood tests confirm (or refute) suspicions raised in the early stages of evaluation that may occur in an emergency room, intensive care unit or urgent care setting. These tests are sometimes called heart damage markers or cardiac enzymes.

Related AHA publications:

• Heart and Stroke Facts
• "What Are the Warning Signs of Heart Attack?" in Answers By Heart kit (also in Spanish kit)
• "What Is a Heart Attack?" in Answers By Heart kit
• AHA Heart Attack Web Site

The Effect of LSD on the Human Brain

Anna Bacon
Heather Cagle
Paul Mikowski
Michael Rosol

Abstract

This paper will explore the link between the microscopic world of neurons and neurotransmitters and the macroscopic physiological effects of LSD on the human subject. Both the actions of synapses and the outward behavioral and physical effects of LSD are well known, but the fundamental connection between these two phenomena is still a mystery to science.

Introduction

In order to have any hope of understanding the complex biological action that LSD has on the human brain and our sense of perception, one must first appreciate the mechanics that lie beneath both neurotransmitters and neurons themselves. In the body, the brain and spinal cord make up what is known as the central nervous system, or the CNS. Each neuron in the human body connects to other neurons and communicates with them by means of electrical signals. These electrical signals must first pass between the small gap between neurons before it can be transmitted. The gaps between neurons are known as synapses. Messages constantly pass through the synapses between our neurons, and these messages allow us to sense, to think, and to act upon these feelings and thoughts. There are two main types of synapses: chemical and electrical. In chemical synapses, which are by far the more common, electrical signal pass from neuron to neuron through the use of mediating chemicals known as neurotransmitters. In electrical synapses, the neurons are in electrical contact with one another, and no intermediate chemicals are needed.

To truly understand the critical action of the neurons, we must investigate the chemical synapse at a microscopic level. The cell that is attempting to transmit the message, or impulse, is known as the pre-synaptic cell, and the cell receiving the impulse is known as the post-synaptic cell. When the pre-synaptic cell attempts to transmit an impulse, it first releases the neurotransmitter chemical through its outer membrane and into the synapse. The strength of the impulse determines to a certain extent the amount of neurotransmitter released. If this neurotransmitter is present in sufficient quantities, then it is absorbed by the post-synaptic cell, and this cell becomes more able to receive the impulse.

At this point, one may wonder exactly how this neurotransmitter makes the post-synaptic cell more receptive. This question is closely related to the method in which neurons accept and receive impulses. Each neuron involved in the transmission of impulses can be approximated as a container of negatively charged ions (like Cl-) sealed off from the environment, which is a sea of positively charged ions (like K+ and Na+). The cell "fires," or transmits an impulse to its related post-synaptic neurons when certain channels open up on the outer membrane of the neuron. This firing of the neuron is known as setting up of an action potential. When the channels on the neuron open, these channels allow a certain amount of positively charged ions into the cell. This movement of charge sets up a current which becomes the impulse. Certain factors influence when and how often these channels open. If the cell in question is a sensory one, like in the tips of our fingers, tactile, pressure, or temperature stimulation will cause the cells to "fire." If the cell is an interneuron, which transmits impulses from the CNS to the PNS, then action potentials will most likely arise from an impulse sent from a pre-synaptic cell. What neurotransmitters do is they change the permeability of the post-synaptic neuron's membrane, so that these channels on the membrane become either easier to open, or more difficult to open, and in turn, it is then simpler or more difficult for Na+ and K+ ions to enter, which then changes how easily it is for the cell to generate an action potential.

The two kinds of neurotransmitters that exist are excitory and inhibitory. Excitory neurotransmitters make it easier for the cell to allow positive ions in, and therefore decrease the threshold, or the smallest stimulation that will cause the cell to generate an impulse. Inhibitory neurotransmitter, on the other hand, make the neuron's membrane more permeable to negative ions, and increase the threshold.

The cell ceases to fire once there is no charge difference across the membrane, once the original pre-synaptic cell absorbs the neurotransmitter, once enzymes degrade the neurotransmitter, or once the amount of neurotransmitter diffuses down to almost nothing. Once the cell has fired, there is a certain period of time that exists before that cell can again generate an action potential. This time period is known as the refractory period. During this time, the charge inside the cell is nearly equal to the charge outside the cell, and it requires a great deal of stimulus to make this cell fire again. It is for this reason that many stimuli seem to fade if we are subjected to them several times within a reasonably short period. Certain neurotransmitters, like norepinephrine, instead of changing the threshold potentials, instead decrease the refractory period, resulting in neurons firing several action potentials for each stimulation.

Finally, yet another method of action of neurotransmitters is much more subtle. In this case, the neurotransmitters alter the neurotransmitter receptor sites on the post-synaptic neuron. Molecules that make it easier for the post-synaptic cell to be influenced by neurotransmitters are known as agonists, and those that make it more difficult are known as antagonists. For example, an antagonist that makes a cell less responsive to an inhibitory neurotransmitter would cause an excitory response.

In order to translate this information to the macroscopic world, it is important to understand that many of the mind-altering drugs in use today, are psychologically active because they mimic or affect the production of the neurotransmitters that our body naturally produces. Our neurons are constantly receiving stimuli from the outside world. The vast majority of these stimuli are too weak to actually set up an action potential, and of those that set up a local action potential, fewer still are strong enough to be noticed by our conscious mind. If hallucinogens in a person's system lower the threshold at which our nerves fire, then these very weak stimuli, which the person without the drug would not even notice, will form a false image. Therefore, the over-active mind will create vivid hallucinations out of amplified stimuli from the ordinary world.

Principles

Serotonin and LSD

Though the precise biochemical action of hallucinogens is unknown, it is believed that it probably stems from a complex reaction with serotonin (5-HT) from the cortex to the spinal cord. In fact, LSD seems to closely resemble serotonin in structure. Thus, the study of serotonin reveals a great deal about LSD.

Though located in many cells throughout the body, it is the serotonin of the nervous system that concern the actions of LSD. It exists mainly in the Locus Coeruleus and Raphe Nuclei, or the midline of the upper brain stem. It is here that the chemical is believed to play a large role in moderating behaviors and moods. Anti-social personality disorders, violence, and impulsive behavior have been connected with its lowering. Severe depression and suicidal states are also connected to a low serotoin activity, while high serotonin corresponds to alertness.

These facts can be traced back to serotonin's importance in 'language'; that is in hearing, seeing words or objects, and motor (including voice) control. It plays this role by breaking sensory relay and exciting motor relay from the brain. The release of serotonin in doing this is self-regulating. As it is released by the synapses, it prevents further release.

Given this information, and knowing the effect of LSD and other hallucinogenic drugs, a connection should not seem surprising. In fact, LSD, along with psilocin, and DMT, contain indole rings very similar in makeup to those of serotonin. It is this similarity that allows LSD to mimic the serotin at the receptors and inhibit the firing of the serotonergic neurons.

The actions of serotonin(5-HT) and the effects of LSD on the human subject are inextricably linked. The neurological pathways that allow serotonin to regulate so many of the body's activities are the same ones that allow the LSD molecule to so profoundly affect the body. The true frontiers of chemistry lie here, in the serotonergic neurons and the bodies' response to the disruption of the normal pathways. As of now, there is still great confusion over how LSD affects the neurons, especially at the synaptic level.

It is important to first understand the workings of the neurotransmitters and the receptors involved with the 5-HT response in order to have a meaningful discussion of the different theories involving LSD action. Both the pre-synaptic and post-synaptic neurons contain receptors that allow neurotransmitters to modulate their activity. This modulation can take the form of a change in membrane permeability or a change in that neuron's production of a neurotransmitter.

On the serotonin neurons themselves, there seem to be two main types of receptors to which LSD and 5-HT both can attach. The two types are known the 5HT1 receptors, usually part of pre-synaptic neurons and the 5HT2 receptors, which are usually on the post-synaptic neuron. When a molecule becomes chemically attached to 5HT1 receptors of the serotonin producing neurons, the neuron slows or stops its production of serotonin, creating a negative feedback loop, where excess serotonin will halt further production. When a molecule binds to the 5HT2 receptors, the post-synaptic neuron is inhibited, and it is more difficult for it to generate an action potential. Apparently, serotonin will attach itself to either of these two receptors with equal frequency, but it has been proposed that LSD prefers the 5HT1 type to the 5HT2 type.

Among researchers, much importance is placed on the effects of LSD in the Raphe Nuclei, because it is a small area of the brain which contains most of the brain's serotonergic cells. Part of the function of the RN is postulated to be the protection of the brain from over-stimulation and sensory overload. It is also connected to many other areas of the brain, which if LSD action is truly based in the RN, would explain how such small doses can create such wide-ranging sensory and hallucinatory effects. As stated before, researchers are still working to discover exactly how LSD interacts with serotonin. While no one is sure as to the nature of this interaction, there are several theories that are still being tested today.

The description of the area of cutting edge work

The first postulated mechanism for the action of LSD involved its theorized affinity for pre-synaptic 5HT1 receptors. It was believed that the presence of LSD would flood the 5HT1 receptors, which would, in turn, force the serotonergic pre-synaptic neuron to cease serotonin production. This would lead to an increase in post-synaptic activity. All effects of LSD were believed to have their roots in this theorized suppression of serotonin.

The largest debate that still exists today involves the action of LSD on the 5HT2 receptors. The biggest question is whether LSD inhibits the 5HT2 receptors' uptake of serotonin, or whether it facilitates that uptake. In other words, they are trying to determine whether it is agonistic or antagonistic. For a great while, there was convincing evidence for both sides of the antagoinist/agonist argument and the researchers in the field lined up on both sides with seemingly contradictory evidence.

The newest theory attempts to resolve this debate without going against the accumulated evidence. In this case, it is theorized that LSD is only a partial agonist. According to this explanation of LSD action, the LSD molecule is more attracted to the post-synaptic 5HT2 receptors than the 5HT molecule. Once attached to the 5HT2 receptor, LSD can cause the same effect as normal serotonin (the damping of post-synaptic neural activity), but it does so much less effectively than serotonin. Thus, in experiment where the synapses being tested were devoid of the natural serotonin, LSD appeared to be agonistic and functioned as serotonin. However, when the experiments judged the activity of LSD against the normal activity of serotonin, the LSD, with the higher receptor affinity, blocked the serotonin, and the system behaved as if serotonin was reduced, because the less effective LSD was acting instead of the more effective LSD. This theory of LSD acting as an antagonist or as an agonist seems to be the most promising, but much more conclusive research needs to be conducted.

Neurobiologists study brain function at the level of neurons while psychologists look for the laws describing behavior and cognitive mechanisms. Many in these fields believe that it is possible that one day we will be able to understand complicated behaviors in terms of neuronal mechanisms. While research on the level of neurons and psychological mechanisms is fairly well developed, the area in between these is rather unclear. However, some progress has been made. Cognitive scientists have been able to associate mechanisms with areas of the brain and have also been able to describe the effects on these systems by various neurotransmitters. The lack of knowledge in the middle ground between neurobiology and psychology makes a description of the mechanisms of hallucinogens necessarily coarse. A brief exploration of the possible mechanisms of LSD will ensue, along with a deeper look at the more developed studies of the mechanisms on a neuronal level.

Researchers have attempted to identify the mechanism of LSD through three different approaches: comparing the effects of LSD with the behavioral interactions already identified with neuotransmitters, chemically determining which neurotransmitter and receptors LSD interacts with, and identifying regions of the brain that could be responsible for a wide variety of effects.

Initial research found that LSD structurally resembled serotonin (5-HT). 5-HT is implicated in the regulation of many systems known to be effected by LSD. This evidence indicates that many of the effects of LSD are through serotonin mediated pathways. Subsequent research revealed that LSD not only has affinities for 5-HT receptors but also for receptors of histamine, ACh, dopamine, and the catecholines: epinephrine and norepinephrine.

Two areas of the brainstem that are thought to be involved in LSD’s pathway are the Locus Coeruleus (LC) and the Raphe Nuclei. The LC is a small cluster of norepinephrin containing neurons in the pons beneath the 4th ventricle. It is responsible for the majority of norepinephrine neuronal input in most brain regions. While norepinephrine activity throughout the brain is mainly mediated by the LC, the majority of serotonergic neurons are located in the Raphe Nuclei (RN). The RN is located in the middle of the brainstem from the midbrain to the medulla. Along with the LC, the RN is part of the ascending reticular activating system. 5-HT inhibits ascending traffic in the reticular system; perhaps protecting the brain from sensory overload. It is also believed that post-synaptic 5-HT receptors in the visual areas are inhibited. It is apparent that an interruption of 5-HT activity would result in the excitation of various sensory modalities.

Current thought is that the mechanism of LSD is related to the regulation of 5-HT activity in the RN. However, the RN is also influenced by GABAergic, catecholamergic, and histamergic neurons. LSD has been shown to also have affinities for many of these receptors. Thus it is possible that some of its effects may be mediated through other pathways. Current research has focused on the effects of LSD on 5-HT activity.

Current related work

The current focus of much of today’s research on LSD is whether it is an agonist or an antagonist. Molecules that excite receptors are labeled agonists, while molecules that inhibit the action and interfere with the binding of the receptor are known as antagonists. Pierce and Peroutka have argued that LSD has a number of antagonistic properties. They observed that spiperone, a 5-HT antagonist doesn’t block the behavior of LSD. Another piece of evidense is that radio ligand binding studies have shown that the affinity of a 5-HT2 receptor agonist is pH dependent while the affinity of 5-HT2 receptor antagonist is pH independent. The action and effects of LSD is pH independent. (Peroutka & Pierce 1990)

This study also looked at 5-HT2 receptors that are connected to a phosphatidylinositol (PI) second messenger system. PI turnover rate has been found to be stimulated by 5-HT and the reverse is true for 5-HT2 antagonists. LSD doesn’t stimulate PI turnover. This was a further example of antagonistic behavior by LSD.

Also observed in this study was the excitement of central nervous system neurons by 5-HT receptors. This was caused by a decrease in K+ conductance which can be attributed to the activation of 5-HT2 receptors. LSD was shown to inhibit CNS neurons, again displaying antagonistic tendencies.

While these scientists seem to have created a credible argument on the antagonistic properties of LSD, subsequent studies have leaned in the opposite direction. Glennon has developed a number of counterpoints to Pierce and Peroutka’s evidense. He studied the effects of LSD on the PI turnover rate at differing doses. This yielded vastly different results due to the fact that LSD has biphasic responses. That is it illicits the opposite effects at low doses as those at high doses. (Glennon 1990) This study indicated that LSD acts as a partial agonist. The LSD produced approximately twenty five percent of the PI turnover as was observed to be produced by 5-HT. From this, it can be concluded that LSD has a higher affinity for 5-HT receptors than 5-HT, but a lower efficacy. If LSD acts as a partial agonist with low efficacy, it could compete with 5-HT for 5-HT2 receptors. However, since 5-HT is a more potent agonist than LSD, the agonistic tendencies of LSD are masked and it appears to behave antagonistically.

Glennon also observed the effects of LSD on platelet aggregation. This action is affected by 5-HT2 mechanisms. Hallucinogens, such as LSD, were shown to be antagonized by 5-HT2 antagonists, such as keratin, in the presence of platelet aggregation. This also supports the argument that LSD is agonistic.

The Heffter Organization is currently working to sponsor a new study in Zurich, Switzerland and La Jolla California. They will study the interaction of LSD and keratin. The project will combine state-of-the-art psychological, brain imaging, and psychophysiological methods to explore the mechanisms of action and sites of keratin in humans. Human subjects will be used for the first time. The volunteers will be treated with psychedelic agents, such as LSD, and another drug whose corresponding receptors are known. Drug effects will be monitored using psychological scales of altered states of consciousness, flourodeoxyglucose Position Emission Tomography (PET) imaging of the metabolic activities of various parts of the brain, and psychophysiological measures of information processing and attention filtering. The PET studies will enable the determination of which areas of the human brain are activated or inactivated. This in turn will tell whether the drug in an agonist or antagonist. Glennon also observed that the relationship between LSD and 5-HT2a and 5-HT2c receptors is like that between 5-HT1 and 5-HT2 receptors. 5-HT1 receptors antagonize the 5-HT2 receptors. His study showed that LSD had an affinity for 5-HT2a and 5-HT2c sites and is antagonized by 5-HT1. This is evidense that LSD is agonistic.

The Fishberg Research Center in Neurobiology at Mount Sinai School of Medicine did a study this year mapping the binding sites of the 5-HT2a receptor. They tested the interaction between LSD and the receptor binding sites. They used site directed mutagenesis of serine Ser3.36(159)-->Ala and Ser3.36(159)-->Cys The results showed that the affinity of LSD to the 5-HT2a site was unaffected by the mutation.

The Heffter Organization is sponsoring another upcoming study of the effects of LSD. David L. Nichols, Ph.D. will try to develop receptor binding profiles for lysergamides that have been tested in humans. This will attempt to derive correlations between pharmacological effects and affinity for particular receptors. Statistical tests will be used to determine which receptors are most likely to attract LSD. As related in the above paragraph, current research indicates that it will have an affinity for 5-HT2a, but an interaction at one or more of the other receptors may be contributing to the exceptional potency of LSD

Heat and Sun Illnesses Beat the Heat!

There are between 175 and 1250 heat deaths each year in the United States. Most of these deaths result from a general lack of knowledge about how and when heat injuries occur and how they should be treated.

The heat is on
Our bodies produce and maintain heat, even in excessively hot conditions. Our natural method for cooling off is sweat, which is best evaporated by low humidity and wind. But stagnant, humid air makes sweating (cooling) less effective. As our cooling sytem begins to fail, our body (much like a car) begins to overheat, which can lead to heat stroke or heat exhaustion.

What is heat stroke?
Heat stroke is the most serious of heat illnesses and is caused by a body temperature of 105° F or more, where your bodily cooling process fails; mental impairment and death can result. Most cases occur without warning, and a few cases progress from lesser heat injuries, such as heat exhaustion. The classic signs (fever, sluggishness, confusion, and hot and dry skin) may not be present. Heat stroke can damage vital organs, such as the liver, kidneys, and brain.

There are two categories of heat stroke: classic heat stroke and exertional heat stroke. Classic heat stroke mostly affects the elderly, chronically ill, those who do not exercise, and people taking certain medications (such as psychiatric drugs, decongestants, some blood pressure pills, diuretics, and antihistamines). This type of heat stroke is seen during heat waves in unaccustomed areas.

Exertional heat stroke occurs mostly in younger individuals who are strenuously exercising or working in hot conditions. This type of heat stroke results from increased heat production and may cause organ damage.

How do I treat heat stroke?
Treatment of heat stroke involves rapid cooling of body temperature to less than 102.2° F. Evaporative cooling is best: a large fan blows while lukewarm water is sprayed or sponged over the victim. Immersion in an ice-water bath is an alternate. If the victim is far from a health care facility, he or she should be removed from the hot environment and placed in shade or a cool shelter. Unnecessary clothing is removed, and the victim is sprayed with lukewarm water and fanned. If available, ice packs may be placed in the groin and armpits, where large blood vessels act as cooling radiators.

Preventing heat injuries
Most heat injuries can be prevented by knowing the risk factors. They include dehydration, heavy clothing, prolonged exertion (athletics, military exercises, outdoor work), poor conditioning, lack of adaptation, obesity, sleep deprivation, alcohol, poor living conditions, aging, chronic (long-lasting) disease, saunas, and some medications. A major risk factor is a prior heat stroke, which makes you more susceptible to having another one.

Dehydration is avoided by drinking cool water before and during heat exposure (11/2 to 2 cups before, then 1 cup every 20 minutes during heat exposure). Sports drinks that are too sweet, which can interfere with fluid absorption, may be diluted to half strength by adding water. Work and rest cycles can prevent overexertion. During summer sport training programs, the hydration of athletes should be monitored with practice weigh-ins and weigh-outs; athletes who have lost excess water weight (2-3% of body weight) are at higher risk for a heat injury. Despite popular belief, salt tablets should be avoided. Clothing should be loose, breathable, and light in color, and activities should be planned for cooler morning or evening hours whenever possible.

Acclimatization through gradual, daily exposure to heat reduces most forms of heat illness. This natural adaptation takes 10 to 14 days and allows your body to cool off more efficiently. The effects are not permanent, however, and modest continued exposure is needed to maintain them.

Minor heat illnesses, such as heat cramps (cramps in large working muscles), heat edema (swollen feet or ankles), and heat syncope (fainting), do not cause lasting effects and are usually avoided by limiting exposure and becoming acclimatized.

Heat exhaustion
Heat exhaustion, although not as dangerous as heat stroke, is a serious injury. It can progress to heat stroke if not treated immediately. Heat exhaustion itself does not cause damage to vital organs, nor does it cause mental impairment. The body temperature of someone suffering from heat exhaustion is less than 102°F. Symptoms include sweating, headache, dizziness, nausea and vomiting, muscle weakness, cramps, and blurry vision. Dehydration and chronic salt depletion can cause this illness.

How do I treat heat exhaustion?
First, the victim is removed from the hot environment. Then, the victim is cooled off, as with heat stroke. Finally, fluids must be replenished.

Sun illnesses
Our sun emits radiation, and fortunately most harmful radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere. Of the remaining radiation, ultraviolet radiation (UVR) causes the most problems. UVR levels are highest during summer months, especially between 9:00 a.m. and 3:00 p.m. UVR passes through clouds, even causing sunburn on a cloudy day. Environmental factors such as snow, sand, and water reflect UVR and can increase exposure.

There are two main types of UVR: UV A and UV B. UV A causes tanning and had been regarded as safe; however, recent studies suggest that prolonged exposure can lead to cataracts. UV B is more harmful and is responsible for most skin injuries.

How does UVR affect me?
Sunburn is the most common reaction to UVR exposure, resulting in reddened, painful, and blistered skin. The skin cells suffer short-term damage, but repeated exposures can also lead to skin thickening, discoloration, wrinkles, and cancer. Sunburn can occur after just 20 minutes of exposure in peak conditions. Individuals with different skin types have different responses to UVR. Light-skinned persons tend to burn easily, while dark-skinned persons do not.

Snow blindness (photokeratitis) is sunburn of the eye. This painful condition is caused by the heightened exposure from the reflective surface of snow, sand, or water. It usually occurs at higher altitudes, but can affect people who live near a body of water. Snow blindness is temporary, but sun exposure over the years can lead to a cataract (hardening of the eye's lens). Intense light conditions (such as staring at an eclipse) can irreversibly damage the retina (back part) of the eye and cause vision loss.

How can I limit UVR exposure?
Protective clothing (such as long-sleeve shirts and hats) and avoiding peak sunlight hours of 9:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. are recommended. Sunscreens help by absorbing UVR before it penetrates into the skin to cause damage. Sun Protection Factor (SPF) is a scale that rates effectiveness; the higher the number, the more protection. Various products resist sweat and water to different degrees. Sunscreen of at least SPF 15 should be worn on exposed areas and reapplied according to the instructions. Sun damage begins in childhood and is cumulative; therefore, children should always be protected. Although sunscreen does offer some protection, you should not spend endless time in the sun.

The best way to protect your eyes is to wear polarized sunglasses. Polarized sunglasses filter out UVR and should be worn for most outdoor activities (including driving). These glasses may reduce the long-term risk of cataracts. "Glacier" glasses with side shields are recommended for high-intensity snow or sea conditions. Non-polarized glasses are dangerous; they trick the eye into an illusion of less light, but do not block harmful radiation.

Heat and sun illnesses are serious. By taking a few preventive measures, however, you can continue to enjoy the outdoors and cut down on the risk of injury.

LPG Fuel: A Health Risk?

“Why is the government allowing LPG fuel when it is a health risk? Many drivers claim that their health deteriorated with LPG.” I received this message from my friend who works for an NGO. As a commuter who values the role of public transport drivers, I became deeply concerned. So I will attempt to answer her question.

According to news reports

the Department of Health (DOH) is currently investigating a surge of heath risks among drivers of public utility vehicles fueled by Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG). Health Secretary Francisco Duque III said, “We have received reports of drivers of LPG-driven public vehicles suffering from difficulty in breathing and skin allergy.” He said that if LPG is indeed proven to pose health risks, the DOH will “make a recommendation to immediately stop the use of such technology.” (Read the article here)

Ain’t that for cooking? Why use LPG for fuel anyway?

The development of LPG Fuel is part of an environmental health campaign. According to a 2003 World Bank report 1,300 deaths and 45,000 emergency room visits in Manila are due to air pollution that can also be attributed to transportation. In 2004, the USAID gave a grant “for ‘Clean Cities Philippines’ development will bring Alternative Fuel Vehicle training and coalition development and technology demonstration projects in CME (coconut methyl ether), biodiesel, CNG, and LPG.” (source: Clean Cities, US Department of Energy)

In the past 4 decades, LPG fuel have already been used in Italy, Japan, South Korea and the United States with over 10 million motorists running on LPG. This technology, also known as “autogas,” has been launched in the Philippines to provide a choice of alternative fuel that’s cheaper and cleaner. According to Wilfredo Toledo, Petron’s Technical Department manager, “10 million people cannot be wrong. LPG has a safety record as good if not better than gasoline.” (source: A. Perez)

The bottom line: LPG fuel technology is for a cleaner and more breathable environment. It also provides cheaper fuel options. So it has good intentions.

But if LPG is proven to be a health hazard, then that would spell trouble.

I found a report on LPG Supplies and Facilities in the Philippines presented at an LPG-CNG Workshop in ADB Manila back in October 2002. Here’s a gyst:

• There are 9 major LPG suppliers in the country including Petron, Caltex, and Shell.
• Their current facilities have a storage capacity of 86,900 metric tons of LPG in Luzon alone
• There is a potential auto LPG market of 3,000 cars for transportation in Metro Manila using 40 liters per day. That’s 12,121 metric tons per month.
• So it’s feasible.
• Their target market? Auto-LPG cars. The gas stations. The fleet operators.

I got this from an article at gov.ph: The Modernization Program of the Department of Transportation and Communications has been pushing for more LPG-driven public utility vehicles. Last Wednesday “President Arroyo launched the Philippines’ first LPG-diesel hybrid vehicle, the newest alternative fuel option on a growing list, in simple rites at the MGE Terminal along Seminary road in Barangay Bahay Toro, Quezon City.” And at present, the cost for a jeepney to converted into a hybrid diesel engine running on 70% diesel and 30% LPG is P70,000.

The big bucks and politics come in.

And so?

First of all, I think the assumption underlying my friend’s question is that LPG fuel is indeed a health risk. However, we have yet to wait for the facts of the DoH investigation. Do I see some eyebrows raising? You think they might be bribed to prove that there’s no link between LPG use and public health! I hope the DoH will not compromise public health for economic gains. What’s the use of a surging economy when you’ve got surging health hazards? I suppose it’s fair to give LPG fuel technology the benefit of the doubt. Maybe these complaints are not definitely related to LPG fuel after all. I wonder if there are similar cases of ‘health risks’ like this in other countries. And I also wonder what the doctors have to say about it. For now, innocent until proven guilty.

To answer my friend’s question, let’s presume LPG fuel is indeed a health risk– why would the government allow it? Simple. There are just too many players involved now. The fuel companies, the hybrid engine conversion mechanics, the Clean Air advocates who’ve invested money in this field of research.

I’m not against any move for environmental advocacies and cheaper fuel alternatives. What I just find interesting in this issue is that we’re weighing which among these is more important: environment, money, or the human person. If there are no health hazards, then why not pursue alternative fuel?

Growing up and making babies - puberty

Puberty is the name given to the physical and emotional changes which take place in most boys and girls between the ages of 10 & 14. Puberty occurs so that one day the boy or girl will be able to make a baby.

Reproduction, the technical term for making babies, can only occur when a boy and girl are sexually mature. One of the main physical changes of puberty therefore is the growth and development of the sex organs – the parts of the body that are used to have sex and make babies. Sex organs that can be seen on the outside of the body are called ‘genitals’ while those that are inside the body are usually called ‘reproductive organs’.

Some more about a girl’s sex organs

Between a girl’s legs there are three small holes. At the front is the urethral opening which a girl urinates through, and at the back is the anus which she defecates from. In between these two holes is a third hole, her vaginal opening. From the vaginal opening there is a small passageway or tube, called the vagina, which leads to the reproductive organs inside the body.

When a girl has her period the blood comes out through her vagina. Inside the vagina there is a small piece of thin skin called the hymen. The hymen partly covers the vaginal opening, but there is still enough of a gap for blood to get through. Sometimes the hymen breaks and bleeds slightly when a girl has sex for the first time.

Some other important parts of a girl’s sex organs are:

• The clitoris, which is at the front of a girl’s outside sex organs and is about the size of a pea
• The outer lips (labia) of a girl’s sex organs

The labia, the clitoris and the vaginal opening are together known as the vulva.

Some more about a boy’s sex organs

The boy’s sex organs outside his body are his penis and testicles (testes).

A boy’s penis hangs down between his legs at the front of his body. The main parts of a penis are:

• The shaft - the main, long part of the penis
• The glans - the tip or end of the penis
• The foreskin - skin which covers the glans

The foreskin can usually be pulled back quite easily. If it is tight it can be stretched by gently pulling it over the glans. All boys are born with a foreskin, but some have it removed when they are a baby, or later in life. The removal of the foreskin is called circumcision.

Underneath the penis is the scrotum – a loose, wrinkly pouch of skin that hangs down behind a boy’s penis. It contains his testicles. As a boy goes through puberty his testicles move lower down his scrotum. One of the testicles usually hangs lower than the other.

Eggs and Sperm

Inside a girl’s body are two small organs called the ovaries. Contained in these ovaries are hundreds of tiny sex cells or eggs, each no bigger than the head of a pin. At some point during puberty, the ovaries will begin to release these eggs. Usually one egg is released every month. This process is called ovulation.

A boy’s sex cells are called sperm and they are even smaller than a girl’s eggs. At puberty a boy's testicles will start making sperm. Sperm leaves a boy's body through his penis when it is hard and erect. This is known as ejaculation and it happens when a boy reaches the height of sexual excitement and has an orgasm. When a boy ejaculates, millions of tiny sperm are sent from his testes, up through his penis and out through the end. The sperm are contained in a sticky white fluid called semen.

When a boy’s sperm meets with a girl’s egg they usually join together, and a baby will begin to grow.

How do egg and sperm meet? – Sexual intercourse

The most common way that sperm get inside a girl’s body is through sexual intercourse. Sexual intercourse is when a boy puts his hard penis inside a girl's vagina. It is also often called having sex or making love.

Having sex (which usually involves moving the penis in and out of the vagina) is usually very pleasurable for both a boy and a girl, and it will often result in an orgasm for one or both partners. If a boy ejaculates while his penis is inside the girl’s vagina, (or semen gets inside the vagina any other way) the millions of tiny sperm in the semen will swim up the vagina, through the cervix (the entrance to the uterus) and into the uterus. From there they will then swim into the fallopian tubes. In one of the fallopian tubes the sperm may find an egg that has recently been released by the ovary. The sperm will surround this egg and try to get inside it. Eventually just one sperm cell will succeed, and the egg and sperm will join. This joining is also known as fertilisation or conception.

This joined sperm and egg then travel back down to the uterus, where they will settle in the thick, blood-rich lining and start to grow into a baby. It is at this point that we say a girl is pregnant.

What happens if the sperm and the egg don’t meet? - Periods

Girls generally only release an egg once a month, and it will normally take a few days to travel down the fallopian tube. If sperm don’t meet with the egg during this time, then she won’t become pregnant.

Without a new baby to nourish, the thick lining of the uterus is no longer needed. So, approximately 14 days after a girl’s egg is released, the bloody lining of the uterus will begin to come away, and will flow down through the cervix and out of the vagina. This process is called menstruation, and this is the blood that a girl will notice when she has her period. During puberty, a girl’s first period is a sign that she has released her very first egg, and is now able to have children.

Periods will usually last somewhere between 3 and 10 days. Around 14 days after the start of her last period, a girl will ovulate (release an egg) again, and will once again have the chance to become pregnant. This process of period, then ovulation, then period, is known as the menstrual cycle. On average, the whole menstrual cycle (from the first day of the period to the day before the next) will last 28 days, although variations between 21 and 35 days are quite normal.

More about pregnancy

Though an egg is usually released about the same time each month, this doesn’t mean that a girl can predict exactly when she will (or won’t) become pregnant. This is because girls usually have no way of knowing exactly when they are ovulating. Not only can the day of ovulation vary from girl to girl, it can vary from month to month in an individual girl.

In addition, sperm can survive for several days within the body, so they can ‘hang around’ waiting for an egg to be released if there isn’t one there already.

All this means that if a girl wants to avoid pregnancy but still have sex, she and her partner will need to use contraception. Some contraceptives, like the contraceptive pill, are used by girls. Boys can use condoms. Condoms also prevent sexually transmitted diseases from being passed from an infected person to another person during sexual intercourse.

Using contraception every time you have sex is very important if you want to avoid pregnancy. It is also important to remember that a girl can become pregnant even if:

• It is the first time she has sexual intercourse
• She has sex before she has her first period (it could be that she is ovulating for the first time)
• She has sex during her period (sperm can stay alive for several days)
• A boy withdraws his penis before he ejaculates (precum, the fluid that leaks out the penis before a boy ejaculates, can sometimes contain sperm)
• She has sex standing up (sperm can swim in any direction – up or down!)

Because periods stop during pregnancy, the first sign that a girl may be pregnant is usually a missing period. If a girl doesn’t start her period at the usual time, it is probably a good idea for her to talk to her doctor or another adult as soon as she can. Periods can come late for other reasons (for example when a girl is stressed, on a very strict diet or has been unwell), but if she has had sex in the past month, then it may be a good idea to take a pregnancy test to be sure.

Sexual feelings during puberty

It isn’t just the body that changes during puberty - our feelings can change too, and like the changes to the sexual organs, these feelings prepare us to have sex and make babies.

What are the main physical signs of sexual feelings?

The main sign for boys that they are getting sexually excited is when they get erections.

The main sign for girls is when their vagina begins to get moist. The clitoris gets bigger too.

For both boys and girls when they are sexually excited or "turned on", extra blood comes to the surface of the skin, particularly around the penis and vagina. You can feel warm and sensitive and sexy just about anywhere on your body.

At what age do boys and girls start to get sexual feelings?

A person can have sexual feelings any time in their life, but these change around puberty. You might find some sexual feelings just seem to happen to you. But sexual feelings mostly come about from things you choose to do, either on your own or with someone else.

A main way that people express their sexual feelings is by touching their own genitals. This is called masturbation. Some people don't masturbate at all, or hardly ever. Other people masturbate every day. Masturbation does not cause you any harm.

Some girls enjoy touching their clitoris. Many boys enjoy touching their penis, particularly the tip.

When a person is masturbating they become more and more sexually excited. They may then reach a peak of sexual excitement which is called having an orgasm or "coming". This is when all the tension and excitement that has built up is suddenly released. Boys ejaculate when they have an orgasm and their penis will then go limp. For many people masturbation is their first sexual experience.

Sexual feelings in relationships

When people have sexual feelings for each other they will usually want to do sexual things together. There is no set time or order in which to do things.

They often want to kiss and cuddle and hold hands. When people kiss they sometimes 'French kiss'. This is when both people open their mouths when they are kissing and their tongues touch together.

People also like to touch each other through their clothes or put their hands inside to stroke or touch each other's genitals.

There are a variety of other sexual activities that people will also do including sexual intercourse.

It can seem natural to bring sexual feelings into a relationship. But it can also change how people feel about each other and about themselves. You might want to do something because you feel curious about it. Or because you think it will make you feel good. And you might want to do it because you feel very close to someone.

But it's important not to do any of these things because you feel under pressure. And that you think about the consequences and how you'll feel afterwards.

Working That Muscle

Your heart is really a muscle. It's located a little to the left of the middle of your chest, and it's about the size of your fist. There are lots of muscles all over your body — in your arms, in your legs, in your back, even in your behind.

But the heart muscle is special because of what it does. The heart sends blood around your body. The blood provides your body with the oxygen and nutrients it needs. It also carries away waste.

Your heart is sort of like a pump, or two pumps in one. The right side of your heart receives blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs. The left side of the heart does the exact opposite: It receives blood from the lungs and pumps it out to the body.

We Got the Beat

How does the heart beat? Before each beat, your heart fills with blood. Then its muscle contracts to squirt the blood along. When the heart contracts, it squeezes — try squeezing your hand into a fist. That's sort of like what your heart does so it can squirt out the blood. Your heart does this all day and all night, all the time. The heart is one hard worker!

Heart Parts

The heart is made up of four different blood-filled areas, and each of these areas is called a chamber. There are two chambers on each side of the heart. One chamber is on the top and one chamber is on the bottom. The two chambers on top are called the atria (say: ay-tree-uh). If you're talking only about one, call it an atrium. The atria are the chambers that fill with the blood returning to the heart from the body and lungs. The heart has a left atrium and a right atrium.

The two chambers on the bottom are called the ventricles (say: ven-trih-kulz). The heart has a left ventricle and a right ventricle. Their job is to squirt out the blood to the body and lungs. Running down the middle of the heart is a thick wall of muscle called the septum (say: sep-tum). The septum's job is to separate the left side and the right side of the heart.

The atria and ventricles work as a team — the atria fill with blood, then dump it into the ventricles. The ventricles then squeeze, pumping blood out of the heart. While the ventricles are squeezing, the atria refill and get ready for the next contraction. So when the blood gets pumped, how does it know which way to go?

Well, your blood relies on four special valves inside the heart. A valve lets something in and keeps it there by closing — think of walking through a door. The door shuts behind you and keeps you from going backward.

Two of the heart valves are the mitral (say: my-trul) valve and the tricuspid (say: try-kus-pid) valve. They let blood flow from the atria to the ventricles. The other two are called the aortic (say: ay-or-tik) valve and pulmonary (say: pul-muh-ner-ee) valve, and they're in charge of controlling the flow as the blood leaves the heart. These valves all work to keep the blood flowing forward. They open up to let the blood move ahead, then they close quickly to keep the blood from flowing backward.

It's Great to Circulate

You probably guessed that the blood just doesn't slosh around your body once it leaves the heart. It moves through many tubes called arteries and veins, which together are called blood vessels. These blood vessels are attached to the heart. The blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart are called arteries. The ones that carry blood back to the heart are called veins.

The movement of the blood through the heart and around the body is called circulation (say: sur-kyoo-lay-shun), and your heart is really good at it — it takes less than 60 seconds to pump blood to every cell in your body.

Your body needs this steady supply of blood to keep it working right. Blood delivers oxygen to all the body's cells. To stay alive, a person needs healthy, living cells. Without oxygen, these cells would die. If that oxygen-rich blood doesn't circulate as it should, a person could die.

The left side of your heart sends that oxygen-rich blood out to the body. The body takes the oxygen out of the blood and uses it in your body's cells. When the cells use the oxygen, they make carbon dioxide and other stuff that gets carried away by the blood. It's like the blood delivers lunch to the cells and then has to pick up the trash!

Kidneys Are Filters

Each time the blood circulates from the heart out to the body, about 20% (one fifth) of it goes through the kidneys. The kidneys filter out some of the waste before the blood heads back to the heart.

The returning blood enters the right side of the heart. It takes the blood to the lungs for a little freshening up. Carbon dioxide is left in the lungs to be removed when we exhale. What's next? An inhale, of course, and a fresh breath of oxygen that can enter the blood to start the process again. And remember, it all happens in about a minute!

Listen to the Lub-Dub

When you go for a checkup, your doctor uses a stethoscope to listen carefully to your heart. A healthy heart makes a lub-dub sound with each beat. This sound comes from the valves shutting on the blood inside the heart.

The first sound (the lub) happens when the mitral and tricuspid valves close. The next sound (the dub) happens when the aortic and pulmonary valves close after the blood has been squeezed out of the heart. Next time you go to the doctor, ask if you can listen to the lub-dub, too.

Pretty Cool — It's My Pulse!

Even though your heart is inside you, there is a cool way to know it's working from the outside. It's your pulse. You can find your pulse by lightly pressing on the skin anywhere there's a large artery running just beneath your skin. Two good places to find it are on the side of your neck and the inside of your wrist, just below the thumb.

You'll know that you've found your pulse when you can feel a small beat under your skin. Each beat is caused by the contraction (squeezing) of your heart. If you want to find out what your heart rate is, use a watch with a second hand and count how many beats you feel in 1 minute. When you are resting, you will probably feel between 70 and 100 beats per minute.

When you run around a lot, your body needs a lot more oxygen-filled blood. Your heart pumps faster to supply the oxygen-filled blood that your body needs. You may even feel your heart pounding in your chest. Try running in place or jumping rope for a few minutes and taking your pulse again — now how many beats do you count in 1 minute?

Keep Your Heart Happy

Most kids are born with a healthy heart and it's important to keep yours in good shape. Here are some things that you can do to help keep your heart happy:

• Remember that your heart is a muscle. If you want it to be strong, you need to exercise it. How do you do it? By being active in a way that gets you huffing and puffing, like jumping rope, dancing, or playing basketball. Try to be active every day!
• Eat a variety of healthy foods and avoid foods high in unhealthy fats, such as saturated fats and trans fats.
• Don't smoke. It can damage the heart and blood vessels.

So now you know that your heart doesn't look like a valentine, but it sure deserves to be loved for all the work it does. It started pumping blood before you were born and will continue pumping throughout your whole life.

The Nine Basic Human Needs

Human Needs - The Nine Basic Human Needs and how they affect people in the workplace.

Tips - How to use this information for yourself and for understanding others

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The Nine Basic Human Needs

The Nine Needs:

Security, Adventure, Freedom, Exchange, Power, Expansion, Acceptance, Community, Expression.

Each of us has three primary needs, meaning three needs that are more important than the other six needs, which we have to a lesser degree. When people do not get their needs met, they can become agitated, belligerent or driven to use the negative aspects of their needs.

Each of the needs is described below, with their positive aspects (how they work in positive ways) and their negative aspects (how people use more forceful or destructive ways to get their needs met).

Each person is responsible for seeing that they get their own needs met - this is an inside job, not something that is fulfilled by another person. People who share the same needs will feel a connection or common bond.

Two people who do not share at least one common need will feel little connection with another person. Co-workers who do not share similar needs will have a hard time working together. Close friends, partners and mate relationships will usually share two or three needs in common.

Security

Security is the need to feel safe, to feel assured that they know what is going to happen, to know ahead of time what the plans are. What constitutes Security can be different for different people.

Examples of how Security manifests for different people:

• Having lots of money in the bank
• Having a planned savings/retirement program
• Having a secure job
• Having a house, home and family
• Having a dependable car
• Paying off the mortgage or having no debts
• Having excellent personal and family health, or health insurance that covers any possibility
• Having life insurance to protect their family
• Having deep personal faith or personal conviction that they will be OK regardless of what happens in the world
• Carrying a gun or having a way to protect themselves
• Knowing their personal family history, or ethnic background
• Living in a gated/guarded community
• Living near friends and family.

Positive aspects: Whatever makes you feel safe, balanced, grounded, connected, safe, secure, trusting that things will be OK in your life.

Negative aspects: Overly cautious, fearful, paralyzed, indecisive, frozen in place, unable to function due to insecurity, retaliation against someone who they believe destroys their sense of Security.

How this need affects the workplace: People who have a need for Security will be more deeply affected by sudden changes, unforeseen events, real or perceived threats to their job, their livelihood, or their sense of self. Their fear will keep them from functioning in times of crisis or potentially cause them to react strongly to someone that they feel is threatening their sense of security. People who have a high need for security will be drawn more to working in government or public sector jobs than to entrepreneurial enterprises.

People who have a low Security need or have a need for Adventure may welcome change of any kind, while those with a high Security need may react very strongly at even minor changes. A manager who has a need for Adventure with a staff with high Security needs can create havoc and traumatic reactions very quickly.

Adventure

Adventure is the need for an adrenaline rush, to have new experiences, to travel, to have BIG experiences, to have drama in their life, to have a sense of anticipation about upcoming events.

Examples of how Adventure manifests for different people:

• Planning new trips (even if they are never taken)
• Re-organizing a department or company
• Starting a new company or division
• Creating new markets, new products or new industries
• Changing partners or spouses
• Changing jobs frequently
• Moving frequently
• Buying a new car every year
• Being an entrepreneur or being self-employed
• Changing work assignments or locations
• Conquering something (climbing the highest mountain, winning the gold medal, setting new records)
• Experimenting with new techniques or materials
• Being first to do something or try something
• Loving the challenge of solving problems
• Racing sports of all types (the thrill of victory!)

Positive aspects: Sense of higher self-confidence, independence, risk-taking, optimism, excitement, enthusiasm for living.

Negative aspects: Reckless regard for life and limb, irresponsibility, cutting themselves off from people (hermit), judgmental of others who are less adventurous, creating crisis or drama inappropriately.

How this need affects the workplace: People with a need for Adventure will be leading the pack to find new things to do, new places to visit, new markets to open, new products to sell, new ways of doing things, new ways of organizing the company.

They make excellent sales people, who love the thrill of making a sale or opening doors to new clients/customers. They could be a customer service representative who gets a thrill every time the phone rings with a new problem, or they could be an entrepreneur who starts companies over and over.

If things get too boring, people with a need for Adventure will find a way to liven them up - either in a positive way by initiating something new or in negative ways by going off on their own, taking great risks or by criticizing others who can't see that the new Adventure is wonderful!

As mentioned in Security, the conflict between people with a need for Adventure and those with a need for Security can create havoc. Some people have both Security and Adventure in their highest three needs; this creates a particularly challenging situation for them as they seem to be opposites. To handle both appropriately, a person might enjoy travel to new places (Adventure) yet will carefully plan out the trip (Security) - satisfying both needs in a positive way for themselves. Or, they might find themselves constantly torn by conflict between the two. If they realize they are responsible for resolving their own needs, the conflict can be managed in a positive way.

Freedom

Freedom is the need for independence and spontaneity. It is also the need to have choices and to feel in control of making those choices. In many people, Freedom might be combined with Adventure, since a person who has a need for Freedom might be willing to partake of more Adventures, than a person who has both Freedom and Security. Freedom does not care for plans or heavy structure. What constitutes Freedom for one person may be very different from another's need perception of Freedom.

Examples of how Freedom manifests for different people:

• Having choices and making their own choices
• Feeling free to move around without restrictions
• Feeling free to make decisions in their job
• Making choices about relationships
• Choosing where they live
• Choosing what work assignments they will accept
• Teaching others how to be self-sufficient
• Refusing to obey rules that were created by someone else
• Making or enforcing rules that allow Freedom and free choices for others
• Advocating Freedom as a basic human right
• Keeping their options open by not making decisions
• Re-arranging their work space
• Changing their appearance, hair style or way of dressing
• Feeling free to be themselves, regardless of what they are doing or what situation they find themselves in
• Feeling free to search or seek out answers rather than having answers imposed upon them
• Having the freedom to work as they feel is best - either by what hours they work, what days they work, or by how they approach a job or a project
• Refusing to "make a commitment" (an easily recognized example of the need for Freedom)

Positive aspects: Independence, self-confidence, high self-esteem, teaching others, clarity, a way out of martyrdom (feeling stuck, trapped or sorry for yourself)

Negative aspects: Relationship avoidance, fear of commitment, separation and distancing from others, inability to understand others and be understood, manipulative (imposing on people's freedom).

How this need affects the workplace: People with a need for Freedom may resist any and all attempts to impose new rules on them. If they work in an "open" environment, they may excel at projects that require or reward independent thinking and spontaneity. They will make good teachers of people who are expected to exercise independent judgment.

Someone who manages a person with a need for Freedom will get along best with them when they recognize and respect that person's to make choices for themselves. People with a need for Freedom must recognize that need in themselves and not take jobs that are very rule-oriented; rather they must look for situations where their need for Freedom can be exercised appropriately.

The Nine Needs:

Security, Adventure, Freedom, Exchange, Power, Expansion, Acceptance, Community, Expression.

Exchange

Exchange is the need to trade information and knowledge with others, not just to mingle or socialize, but to deliver and receive something of value. That something of value may be information, conversation, communication, energy, friendship, services, money, gifts, love, justice, shared experiences. People with a need for exchange are concerned about the flow of energy in all types of relationships. They like to see things "moving" in some way that expresses balanced equality, integrity and an equal exchange.

Examples of how Exchange manifests for different people:

• Participating with others in discussions of all types
• Staying in touch with friends, family and business associates (phone calls, letters, e-mail, in-person visits, gifts, etc.)
• Feeling a sense of camaraderie with coworkers
• Working with others who have a common goal
• Participating in groups (teams, committees, clubs, boards, etc.) where they feel they are valued and receive value from others
• Seeing that justice is done
• Feeling a sense of fairness and balance in interactions with others
• Working in a way that creates equality for all participants
• Feeling a sense of integrity and trust with others
• Sharing information with others and receiving information in return
• Working with contracts and agreements
• Studying (and working with) situations and people related to ethics, integrity and justice
• Building and maintaining an active network of contacts
• Making introductions to others through their network.
• Sharing a deep relationship with another person, where they feel able to communicate and interact freely and easily.

Positive aspects: Positive role model for relationships; maintaining an equal balanced flow of in a relationship; keeping things moving (knowledge, information, communication, energy); promoting equality in all interactions; working with money, contracts, justice, ethics, integrity, wholeness, balance.

Negative aspects: Keeping secrets, withholding communications, engaging in inappropriate communications (gossip, lying, criticism), cynicism, general negativity, stinginess, not participating with others in an equal or balanced way, unethical behavior or treatment of others.

How this need affects the workplace: People who have a need for Exchange work well with others with common goals. If a person who has a need for Exchange meets someone that does not interact well with them, they will "write off" the person and the relationship, finding no common ground for interaction. If this other person is a boss, client or coworker it will be very hard for them to continue any further interaction with the person.

A person with a need for Exchange needs to feel they are getting something of value from someone else and that they are giving something of value. They will be very distressed by unethical or discriminatory behavior, or learning that information has been withheld from them.

Power

People with a need for Power need to be in a position of authority and responsibility. They need to explore Power, leadership and accomplishment. People with a need for Power tend to be good organizers and accept responsibility, setting an example of leadership.

Examples of how Power manifests for different people:

• Managing a company, a division or a department
• Becoming a leader in a civic organization or professional group
• Organizing events, trips, projects
• Achieving success
• Helping others feel empowered
• Being a well-known speaker
• Becoming an authority on some topic
• Writing a book that expresses leadership
• Being responsible for people, things, projects, events, situations
• Being a leader and recognized as a leader
• Teaching others about leadership and responsibility
• Taking command of an army or a military unit
• Taking over a country
• Rescuing a company in trouble
• Taking charge during an emergency or crisis

Positive aspects: Self-empowerment, leadership, accomplishment, success, organization of others and things, responsibility.

Negative aspects: Viciousness, abuse of power, dictatorship, inappropriate control and manipulation, anger, violence against others or things.

How this need affects the workplace: People with a need for Power will gravitate to situations that allow them to exercise their leadership skills and responsibility. This may be on a grand scale or on a smaller level. When they cannot exercise their need for Power, they may become manipulative through coercive power, threats or over-control. A person with a need for Power may exercise it in the workplace, find outlets in a community setting or in teaching others about the use of appropriate Power.

People with a need for Power may be noticed when they enter a room because they carry a strong sense of leadership and are used to be in command. These are good folks to put in charge when something needs accomplishing. They will be happiest when they feel powerful. They will be unhappiest when someone or something prevents them from exercising Power in some way, or if they feel a sense of personal failure.

Expansion

Expansion is the need to build something, to add onto, to create an empire, to expand horizons, to go where no one has gone before.

Examples of how Expansion manifests for different people:

• Building a company
• Building a personal or political empire
• Creating a personal fortune
• Expanding a collection of any kind
• Saving rare art, rare books or historic buildings from destruction
• Protecting the environment because it benefits humanity
• Building new buildings, cities, communities, roads
• Expanding a market niche
• Creating new knowledge
• Discovering new ways of doing things
• Expanding the boundaries of science, art, medicine, music or nature
• Expanding the knowledge of physical and spiritual laws
• Understanding how the Universe works and explaining it to others
• Seeing the bigger picture
• Becoming an astronaut, oceanographer, medical researcher or scientist focused on exploring new worlds
• Exploring uninhabited lands or regions
• Becoming a minister, preaching about people's connection with a larger spiritual reality
• Creating new breeds of animals or plants

Positive aspects: Growth and expansion; recognizing the value of others; recognizing the value of art, science, nature, physical and spiritual laws; working with cosmology; recognizing a connection with great spiritual teachers (Christ, Buddha, the Higher Self); working with the study of intuition and psychic interests; understanding how the Universe works and how they fit into it; understanding themselves and others.

Negative aspects: Indiscriminate growth (cancer, huge weight gains, hoarding things, large collections of odd things), confusion, loss, abandonment, betrayal, loss, suicide, atheism, evil, sin, spiritual separation.

How this need affects the workplace: People with a need for Expansion will constantly be trying to expand their knowledge and the boundaries of that knowledge. This is good if they are in positions where that energy can be focused on assisting a company grow, creating new knowledge or creating new products. It can be bad if their only outlet for expansion is to take from others. When their need for expansion is thwarted, they may turn that need into inappropriate and harmful ways.

The Nine Needs:

Security, Adventure, Freedom, Exchange, Power, Expansion, Acceptance, Community, Expression.

Acceptance

Acceptance is the need to accept yourself and be accepted by others. This includes a feeling of belonging. People with a need for Acceptance are usually very easy-going and pleasant to have in a group.

Examples of how Acceptance manifests for different people:

• Participating with situations that are open and accepting of everyone
• Feeling a sense of acceptance by coworkers
• Being accepted by neighbors
• Being accepted as a valuable member of a family group
• Being accepted into a club or group
• Working with people who need extra attention and acceptance
• Feeling loved
• Accepting whatever comes up in life
• Doing things that make others feel good
• Being nice regardless of the situation or the person
• Being tolerant of self and others

Positive aspects: Understanding and participating in love and loving situations, romance, bondedness, sense of family or tribe, self-esteem, self-forgiveness, forgiveness of others, altruistic, humanitarian.

Negative aspects: Rejection, jealousy, prejudice, guilt, shame, hate, xenophobia (group prejudice, fear of different classes of people)

How this need affects the workplace: People who have a need for Acceptance are a valuable addition to any group. They will often be a stabilizing presence and help others tolerate each other a little better. They may "go along" to whatever proposals are made to avoid any conflict in a group. It is very hard for them to express any different opinion because of their fear of being rejected.

A person with a need for Acceptance needs to feel they are accepted, as well as accepting others. They can be seen as a "doormat" with no opinion of their own or their time may be abused since they will rarely criticize others or say "no." Because of this, they may be rejected by others, which causes them more severe pain because of their high need for Acceptance.

Community

People with a need for Community like having people around. They are highly social and will express their enjoyment of gatherings. These are the best folks to put in charge of parties and company gatherings. They will seek out people and are able to maintain large numbers of relationships. The need for Community is different from the need for Exchange in that the need for Community does not require the exchange of anything.

Examples of how Community manifests for different people:

• Throwing parties for the slightest of reasons
• Being the center of the office network
• Participating in classes, groups, clubs
• Going to a shopping mall or concert just to be around large groups of people
• Being the cook for large family gatherings
• Hosting family gatherings, groups of friends
• Opening their home to people with common interests that may be in town for some reason
• Running for public office
• Gathering signatures for a petition or ballot initiative
• Being part of a campaign to save the rain forests or a wild life area
• Creating a learning center for people interested in political, social, environmental or spiritual goals

Positive aspects: Need to be around other people; highly social; need to be tribal; ability to have and relate to children, grandchildren, distant relatives; need for family; need for bonding at a wider level; political and ecological participation; responsibility as a citizen; sense of one's own importance and dignity in relation to the rest of humanity.

Negative aspects: Indiscriminate contact, neediness, clinging, dependence, irresponsibility, criminal behavior, short-term thinking.

How this need affects the workplace: People with a need for Community will be with people every chance they can get. They may be the center of the gathering or on the sidelines. They may be the ones bringing forth proposals that point out a company's responsibilities to the environment or the community.

These are not people to be sent to work in an isolated laboratory, work the midnight shift or sent on a mission where they will not be able to socialize with others. Because socializing is such an innate talent with them, others may feel jealous and not understand the high need to be with other people. Others who are less social may be compared inappropriately and told, "If they can do it, so can you." That's not necessarily so. Not everyone has an inherent need (or even tolerance) for very high social contact. The less-social folks may want tag along occasionally, letting those with Community gather the crowds.

Expression

Expression is the need to be artistic, to be seen, to be heard, to be felt. It is the need to express oneself through words, speech, actions, dress, art and self-creations of all types.

Examples of how Expression manifests for different people:

• Expressing through the Internet (creating web sites, writing newsletters, creating graphic art, stating opinions)
• Writing books, poems, articles
• Reading poetry at coffee houses
• Writing opinion articles for newspapers and magazines
• Public speaking about topics that are near and dear to the speaker
• Creating art in all forms (painting, jewelry, crafts, interior design, graphic design, furniture design, architecture)
• Teaching creative thinking classes or workshops
• Designing company logos or ad campaigns
• Coaching children in creative arts
• Dancing or teaching dance in all forms
• Acting in movies, plays or local theaters

Positive aspects: Demonstrating individual creativity, showing balance, getting in touch with creativity, promoting understanding (by revealing self) through art, words, behavior; being a living expression of "who I am."

Negative aspects: Invasion of other's space (too much self-expression), self-centered, temperamental, blind to other's value, lying, creating or expressing a false image.

How this need affects the workplace: People with a need for Expression will be happiest when they are free to express their inherent creativity. Examples might be through writing or designing a company newsletter; creating a company logo; developing company brochures; designing a new work space arrangement; creating designs for new products , services or related materials; designing or maintaining a company's Internet web site; giving speeches on behalf of the company's values, goals and mission (if they reflect the person's values and beliefs).

In many companies, expression of individuality is rigidly controlled and monitored. This may lead to destruction of an individual's ability to function fully and productively in that environment.

For a person with a need for Expression, such an environment will either drive them toward negative expressions or they will go where their creativity is valued. People who cannot be creative or expressive through their work, may find outlets in community activities that are sufficient to satisfy their need for Expression.

The Nine Needs:

Security, Adventure, Freedom, Exchange, Power, Expansion, Acceptance, Community, Expression.

How to use this information for yourself and for understanding others

1. Read over the descriptions of all the nine needs.
2. Determine which of the needs are highest to lowest for you (rank them 1 - 9, with 1 being highest), if you can.
3. Or, group your needs into top tier (3 highest), middle tier (3 middle) and lowest tier (3 lowest).
4. For each need of your top tier, think about how your life has been driven to satisfy those needs in positive ways.
5. And/or, how you've acted from the negative aspect of those needs.
6. Ask yourself the following questions: What is happening in your life today that satisfies your highest needs?
7. Are there strong needs that are not being satisfied for you?
8. What changes can you make so that your highest needs are satisfied?
9. Have your needs changed much since childhood? Is this because you have found ways to satisfy them easily, or have they been constant sources of frustration?

You may find that some needs seem to be of equal importance or that you can't decide between the 3^rd and 4^th highest. That's OK. If the needs are very strong, consider them to be in your "top tier." Sometimes, unmet needs exert extra force so we pay attention to them for a while.

Once you are fairly sure about where your needs rank, think about the people you are closest to and what their needs might be (spouse, partner, coworkers, close friends, children, etc.)

Talking to others about what your needs are, how they affect your life and how they affect your interaction is a valuable exercise to gain understanding. For working teams, learning what is important to each member of the team helps reduce friction and improves communication.

Knowing the needs of others helps us understand that they may be acting from their own highest needs, not just doing something to frustrate us!